Next were the Lycopods which are herbaceous vascular plants commonly called clubmosses, firmosses, and quillworts. The evolution of vascular systems in plants opened a world of opportunity as they quickly became the dominant form of plants in terrestrial ecosystems.

A clubmoss that commonly appears in greenhouses that can be used as a houseplant or specimen in a terrarium is Selaginella. Grow these ancient specimens in humid environments, with low fertility and soil that is evenly moist.

Huperzia nummulariifolia is a fir moss or tassle fern that is hard to come by. The long, fern-like, branches are densely covered with small overlapping leaves. With its epiphytic growth habit, Huperzia is perfect as a hanging plant and requires relatively high levels of humidity, bright indirect light, and frequent watering.

Ferns became the most dominant group of land plants about 300 million years ago. Ferns grew along giant tree lycophytes such as Lepidodendron as they diversified for several million years. As these plants died and sank into anoxic (depleted of oxygen) swamps, fossil fuels or most of the coal and natural gas deposits were formed. Every time you drive your car, ferns are responsible for getting you to your destination!

Some of the oldest living fossil ferns are the Osmunda or royal ferns. One that you might see in your perennial garden is the Cinnamon Fern, Osmunda cinnamomea. Grow this fern in shady, moist locations. Totally deer resistant and known for its vertical, reddish-brown fruiting spike that persists long after spores are shed, this fern will connect you to your prehistoric roots.

The evolution of seeds opened the world of plants to new opportunities as they replaced lycopsid rainforests during the late Carboniferous period. Gymnosperms are a group of vascular plants that produce seeds unprotected by an ovary or fruit and include conifers, cycads, ginkgo, and gnetophytes. Gymnosperm literally means “naked fruit”.

Cycads were so common during the Jurassic period; it is often referred to as the ‘Age of Cycads’. As a group, they have not changed much and occur in tropical regions known to be diversity hot spots in the modern world. Cycads look like palms but are most closely related to Ginkgo. Like Ginkgo, Cycadas are dioecious meaning their male and female reproductive parts appear on separate plants.

Cycas revoluta or sago palm is a widely cultivated and commonly used as an indoor plant. Cycads need to be kept evenly moist but need good drainage. Cactus potting soil works well. Cycads grow episodically which means a flush of new leaves emerges all at once. Indoors, this may happen only every two years. Fertilizers high in nitrogen encourage new growth.

Ginkgo is a type of gymnosperm that includes only one genera with its only surviving member being Ginkgo biloba. Ginkgo became prevalent during the Jurassic period but diversity in this genus was thwarted by the emergence of flowering plants (more on that later). Ginkgos are closely related to Cycads because they share the characteristic of reproducing through motile sperm. Say what?!

Ginkgo is hardy to zone 3 and grow up to 35-50 feet tall depending on the variety. They are very tolerant of a variety of growing conditions include salts and clay soils and boast gorgeous bright-yellow fall color. These days we know to only plant male cultivars as the fruits (but not really fruit) are quite stinky. We love the shorter, squattier stature of ‘Jade Butterfly’ reaching 15 feet tall and 10 feet wide.

Conifers are the most abundant group of extant gymnosperms comprised of 65-70 genera. Most are woody plants that comprised the earliest forests to appear on earth. Massive forestation across the planet quickly raised the amount of oxygen on earth to 35%. Norfolk Island Pine, Podocarpus, Bald Cypress, Redwood, and Larch are the most ancient surviving conifers to date.

Gnetophytes are a group of gymnosperms that were once thought of as the closest relative to flowering plants. The primary difference between gnetophyta and other gymnosperms is the presence of vessel elements which is like those found in flowering plants. Three families of Gnetophytes exist today – Gnetum, Welwitschia, and Ephedra. Some species of the Gnetum family are thought to be the first plant that were pollinated by insects. The only living member of the Welwitschia family is Welwitschia mirabilis which can be found in the Namib desert and is commonly known as tree tumbo or the ugliest plant alive. The Ephedra genus is distributed worldwide, but not in Australia. Ephedra alkaloids have medicinal qualities know to act as decongestants and stimulants.

When Angiosperms arrived on the scene, the great wide world of plants blew open! The oldest angiosperm fossils are estimated to be 135 million years old. Angiosperms as a group are referred to as flowering plants and are the most diverse group of plants on land. Like gymnosperms, angiosperms produce seeds. However, their seeds are produced within and enclosure or fruit. Seeds also contain endosperm which is a nutritive tissue that provides food for the developing embryo.

Magnoliids, many which are commonly cultivated fruit and flowers were some of the earliest angiosperms. These include magnolia, nutmeg, cinnamon, black pepper tree, and the tulip tree. This group is characterized by timerous (many component parts) flowers.

Angiosperms are divided into two groups, monocots, and dicots. This division is based primarily on the number of cotyledons in their seeds.

Monocots diverged from their dicot relatives early on and comprise about 25% of flowering plants. A Tonkadale blog would not be complete without a table, so let’s check out the differences between monocots and dicots.

Monocots include grasses, palms, orchids, grains, banana, onions and many bulbous plants, coconut, lilies, iris, asparagus etc. Dicots include everything else!

Understanding why they are here and where they came from is a bit of the fun when cultivating plants in our environments. The evolution and subsequent cultivation of plants sustains life on earth. So get a little geeky as you grow and observe the ancient plants around you.